Malaria: Causes, Effects and Cures

Malaria: Causes, Effects and Cures Solving a Biological Problem Summary The chapter is about the methodology that is involved in exploring some understanding toward solving a biological problem while doing research in quest. With citation of example of malaria as a problem along with historical stage involved towards gradual understanding related to its causes leading to the findings to its cure and preventions, an attempt was made to present the approach that has been involved in addressing the scientific issues in past. A practical approach that is possible to conduct practically at school level to get the students introduced with research at elementary level and built up some interest in students has been presented in the following chapter. Mathematical and statistical tools that are needed in research have been introduced to analyze the data obtained by using research methodology (hypothetical) to arrive on conclusions about certain aspects of the issues related to malaria to accept, discard or modify the hypothesis on a scientific query. Introduction The human being started putting efforts to explore the world around him right from very beginning. The history is full of examples that show that early human being somehow recorded their opinion about different thing. With passage of time, human beings learnt to evaluate the correctness of their thoughts and opinion on any scientific issue, by setting some experiments, drawing conclusion (hypothesis) based on results, verification of hypothesis by other experiments and reporting it. Research methodology is latest approach involving these procedures to address a scientific problem. Steps involved in Biological Research Procedure Identification of a problem Sufferings of mankind that includes diseases, scarcity of food shelter, utilities etc or related matters are the existing problems from biological origin. To initiate research in an area a problem in a particular area is identified. There can be a wide range of problems e.g. an approach to find a cure for newly emerging disease, find a more effective drug for a curable disease, increase the shelf life of a product etc. Generation of hypothesis Available understanding on an issue that is published in scientific journals is used to draw logical opinion, hypothesis, underlying the biological processes and indicate possibilities that can lead to the management of the problem. There are often more than one hypothesis available for a given scientific query. Usually one hypothesis is being testified by given experiments. (a) Shelf life of chadder cheese increases with increase in number of yeast cells present into it. (b) Quality of spinach deteriorates with increase in rate of transpiration. (c) The rate of decrease in microbial population in a food sample in response of heat treatment at 600C is inversely proportional to its total organic content. Laboratory safety Procedures Every type of biological experimentation should comply with necessary safety procedures that ensures the safety of professionals involved in conducting the experiments and other people. That includes use of special clothing e.g. coats, gloves head cover spectacles etc. All the biological material is carried or grown in specially designed containers that ensure no risk for leakage that can be hazards for other people who can come in contact. All the biological material is heated at 121oC under pressure at 15 psi to kill all type of cells before discarding it whereas chemical agents are discarded as mentioned in safety manuals. Experiment Design Experimentation is a practical approach for investigation a scientific query leading to generation of observations called data. A same question can be investigated by using different experimental approaches. The selection of an experimental design mainly depends upon time required, extent of precision, availability of resources etc. Each experiment design has got some limitations and it is important to ensure that the selected experiment design can optimize for investigating the required scientific query. Each experiment is design by usually changing a variable. In order to test a given hypothesis, experiments are set, usually in triplicate and experiments are repeated at least three times to ensure reproducibility of the data. To avoid adding error in the data it is important to set negative and positive control for a given experiment. Positive control has an ingredient instead of ingredient to be test that should positive result when is added in the reagents and processed as per standard method of experiment in given conditions. On other hand Negative control is set same as positive control but has water or other solvent added instead of reagent to be tested. It is very important that selection of sample that is used in the experiment should be random. It is important to ensure that all the experiments should be done at the same conditions. All those factors that can contribute to add errors should be taken care of. Data Collection and analysis Observations can be collected after completion of experiments or while they are in progress depending on nature of experiments. The data is not always a integral values but can be visual observations that can be recorded by photography. The data is usually recorded with appropriate units in tabular form. This is known as raw data. Every data has some error added into it. Mathematic and statistics an integral part of Biological Analysis The observations that are collected as numerical value after experiments comprise raw data. Mathematical or statistical methods are used to minimize the effect of errors present into it the raw data. The most widely and commonly statistical method that is used to decrease error in data is finding an average in any given readings. Beside that mathematical or statistical tools are used to deduce a logical ground based on numerical value to support, modify or discard any scientific opinion (hypothesis) that is built up on earlier reported scientific findings Use of ratio proportion and percentage Data is analyzed by using mathematical or statistical tools, most commonly that are used include ratio and percentage, for finding an effect of changing a variable on other parameters in a given set of condition. If a numerical variable ‘a’ represents intensity of a biological event that needs to be compared with intensity of another similar event represented by numerical variable ‘b’ then ratios are taken out Ratio between intensity of two biological events = a (equation 1) b In order to represent this comparison on scale of 100, percentage of ratio between variables are taken out The general formula for percentage is given as below %= Ratio between two numerical variable x100(equation 2) Substitute equation 1 in general formula of percentage as shown by equation 2 Percent % (ratio between intensity of two biological events) ={ a }x 100 (eq 3) b Usually biological data can comprise of in a range of very small value to very large and hence it is important to convert it on Log10. The general formula for expressing any numerical variable is shown by equation 4 as follow Number(N) on Log 10 scale= Log10(N) (equation 4) Substitute equation 3 into equation 4 Log 10(ratio between intensity of two biological events) =Log10 { a x 100}(eq 5) b Technical limitation associated with use of Log10 scale While expressing any data on Log10 the difficulty arises when it is needed to express integral 0 on Log10 scale (Log10(0)=infinity). In order to cope with this difficulty 1 or any fraction of number that falls within permissible limit of error (10 scale. In later stages the data can easily be plotted on any type of graphs as discussed in later part of this chapter. Significance of error in decision making and predictions on biological data Every data collected has certain extent of error present into it depending upon experimentation design, procedures and method of taking observations. This error needs to be evaluated before using the data for testing any hypothesis, decision making or predictions. It is defined as tentative variation on negative and positive scale in a set of observations from actual value. The actual numerical value of a biological effect is (B). An experiment was done to note this biological effect. The experiment was repeated N times e.g. (N1 N2 N3 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Nt) to showing observations B as (B1 B2 B3†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Bt) respectively. The first stage in calculation the error is to find an average The general formula for Average is Average = sum of numerical values of individual observation eq 6 Number of times the observation was taken Substitute the values in equation 6 Average ={B1+ B2+†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Bt} eq 7 {Nt} Sum of values of observations ={B1+ B2+†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.Bt}is shown by S{B} No of times the experiment was repeated {Nt} ={N} Substitute the value in equations in equation 7 Average= S{B} equation 8 {N} Lets value of Average be represented by X Substitute in equation 7 Average = X Second stage is to find the difference between each numerical value of observation and Average = B1-X, B2-XBt-X, Third stage is to square each of the difference =B1-X)2,(B2-X)2, (B3-X)2(Bt-X)2 Fourth stage is to add the square of differences =(B1-X)2+(B2-X)2+(Bt-X)2 Fifth stage is to divide square sum of difference of average of individual numerical variable with number of observations e.g N =S(B1-X)2,( B2-X)2,†¦..(Bt-X)2 N Standard deviation or Error is obtained by taking square root of the quotient obtained by dividing the square sum of difference between the average and the individual numerical variable with number of observations. =√S(B1-X)2,( B2-X)2,†¦..(Bt-X)2 N It is an integral value that is expressed, as on negative as well as positive scale e.g if error calculated is 3 then it would be +3 as well as –3. It represents a range within which actual value may lie. In olden days, such calculations were done with the help of calculator but now same work can be done more easily by using different software e.g. excel with computer as a tool. It is often very different to understand the effect underlying in any biological data by merely looking at numerical values. The different types of graphs are used for visual presentation of effect by trends available in data The most commonly types of graphs that are used for the presentation of data are given in figure 2.The same data for different sample e.g. A, B, C is presented on percentage scale by using horizontal and vertical bars whereas error is shown by error bars .Another set of data for sample D, E, F was presented by line graph. Data analysis to decide the status of hypothesis After the mathematical and statistical treatment of raw data a logical ground built up by comparing certain numerical values or more often represented on graphs to accept, modify or reject any hypothesis. In order to test the hypothesis â€Å"The rate of decrease in microbial population in a food sample in response of heat treatment at 600C is inversely proportional to its total organic, 100 cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae were inoculated in same volume in mediums with concentration as X, 3X and 70X respectively to make final concentration of each medium as 100 cells/ml.(Sample D contains 3X concentration medium, Sample E contains X concentration and Sample F contains 70X concentration). The medium were kept at 600C for 1104hours and cells were assayed for viability after 10 hrs, 100, hours, 1000hrs and 10000 hrs respectively. The viability being dependent value was plotted on a graph Y axis against the time in hours after expressing the value on Log 10 scale. Different data points taken on the graph are sufficiently scattered and can not be joined by a straight line accommodating all the point on it. The trend line can be drawn manually by accommodating maximum number of points and leaving as many point above the line as many are there below that line. Such a manually drawn line can not be used for any type of scientific predictions. Otherwise highly precise trend line for a given data can be drawn as explained in section given in the end of the chapter that can be used for making decisions on a given hypothesis and for making predictions. The error bars extending on positive as well as negative scale in same magnitude of Y scale is plotted against each observation. The observation that were taken in this experiment are shown as graphs in Figure 2 e.g. Sample D, E and F were presented by using line graphs on Log 10 scale. The trend lines are introduced to show the type of dependency of one parameter on another. As already discussed earlier the biological data is often presented on Log 10 scale to observe the effects in broader prospective and ignore the slight changes especially when study is made on larger populations of samples e.g. cells with a wide range of variations. The data show that sample D and E has got similar trend (with an increase in variable on X axis, there is a decrease on Y axis variable, Y axis is dependent on x axis and is inversely proportional to it) whereas in sample F, Y variable is independent of X variable as no change in Y variable is observed with an increase in X variable and this is evident by a straight trend line. The conclusion drawn as evident by three graphs that number of viable yeast cells were found to decrease with passage of time when concentration of organic content in medium was X in sample E or 3X in sample D that is represented by a slopes in respective graphs. But this effect was found to be lost when organic concentration was raised to 70X in sample F and that is. This experiment supports the hypothesis â€Å" The rate of decrease in microbial population in a food sample in response of heat treatment at 600C is inversely proportional to its total organic content†. If reported literature indicate some other type of experiments done to check the same hypothesis then results are compared and reason of the variations if there are any are discussed with scientific reference and is reported in a scientific journal. Research Methodology Theory accepted Modification in hypothesis Publication in scientific Journals Discarding above hypothesis Supporting above hypothesis Results interpretation Different Hypotheses Data analysis Data collection Experimental design for a given hypothesis Literature reported in related area Identification of Biological Problem Interpretation of data The data that is obtained is interpreted to draw scientific conclusions. The reported literature is used to give explanation of the conclusion drawn. In the light of conclusion drawn either the hypothesis is accepted, rejected or is modified. If the hypothesis is proven correct with experiments, then it is known as a theory. Scientific articles based on proven hypothesis e.g. theory, disapproved or modified hypothesis are written by scientist involved in research and are sent for publication in scientific journals. Biological Problem as an example A school teacher planned an excursion for students and took paramedic staff equipped with sample collection facility to country side area to study the prevalence of any non contiguous disease in human beings and animals. Malaria is an example of non contiguous disease that is spread only by infected female mosquito is malaria and is a matter of great concern. As reported in newspapers and other literature there was a population of 100,000 people living with minimal facilities of life that on a huge natural water reservoir for drinking water. Recent heavy rain resulted in collection of water of stagnant water and much of this water in later stage drained in reservoir. The students prepared a report explaining how did they use biological methodology to study this case. a) Identification of problem Prevalence of certain incidences of disease symptoms similar to malaria in a given locality was identified as a biological problem. Students wrote the following note after referring the literature about malaria to get basic information about disease. Please refer the picture given below and the literature cited in later part of this chapter. From Mala aria ( bad air) to Malaria-over a period of time Malaria has been a matter of concerns since very beginning. Understanding about malaria has changed over a period of time. Initially it was considered to be caused by some supernatural power. Supported with the findings of higher incidences near the marshy area, malaria was thought to be caused by bad air that is found near marshy areas. With the emergence of germ theory malaria by Louis Pasteur (1852-1895) was thought to be caused by any bacteria. It is strongly believed until Charles Louis Alphonse Laveron (1845-1922) during microscopy of Blood from infected patients observed causative agent of malaria in 1880 and later on reported it to Academy of Medicine in Paris. Albert Freeman Africanus King (1841-1940) who was associated with George Washington University on basis of supporting reports presented the idea that mosquitoes are the mean of transmission of malaria (vector) and discarded the opinion that bad air in marshy area has any role in causing malaria. On basis of his data he suggested that proper netting can help to control the incidences of malaria in Washington. Ronald Ross (1857-1932) was a physician, who studied the life cycle of malarial parasite in mosquites e.g (different stages of parasite infection with a change in morphology) and its transfer to human beings and birds. In 1898 Giovanni Battista Grassi (1854-1925) on basis of understanding about malaria obtained by published literature set an experiment to infect a person who never had malaria (with his permission) in an area of Rome where there was not any case of malaria reported and mosquitoes were not found by exposing the person with Anopheles clavigar for ten night and later on patient developed the symptoms. On basis of his experiment he proved that malaria is spread by mosquitoes in human beings that carries the causative agent Plasmodium. The complete cycle of P. falciparum was observed by Grassi Bignami and Bastianelli in 1899 and the work has been published by Grassi in 1900. The life cycle of Plasmodium has three reproduction stages with different morphologies (shapes). The mosquitoes inject sporozoites in human being s skin that through blood goes to liver where they multiply and change into Merozoites.The second cycle of multiplication does into RBC. Some of the meroziotes after passing through reproductive cycle in RBC converts into gametocytes (male and female gemates) and enters in gut of mosquitoes when they suck blood from an infected human being where they undergo sexual reproduction to zygote which later on converts Oocyst. Oocyste after under going asexual reproduction burst to release newly formed sporozoites that enters in salivary gland of mosquitoes At the site students made a survey of that area and noted the initial observation with the help of photography. They found that not only human being but also the birds are affected by the disease Initial Findings They found that the reservoir (a) was associated with dark places where high populations of mosquitoes can be seen (b).Beside that a few sick birds were also found resting on ground. Diseased patients report to an increase in high fever with shivering that stays for some times and then fever become low or even normal with sweating or even without it. These symptoms are repeated with intervals and patient feels weakness. Initial findings support that the disease is malaria. b) On the basis of their initial findings the following hypothesis was built up. The disease may be Malaria and is caused by Plasmodium Experimentation Plasmodium infect the red blood cells. In order to established that diseased people are suffering from malaria at least 63 patients having disease were bled to collect blood samples. This type of sample that is under study is called as test sample. Blood were taken from at least 50 healthy who do not have any symptoms of disease. Since these people do not have any symptoms of disease it is very likely that Plasmodium may never be detected in their blood. Such a sample that is known to give a negative test is a called a negative control The blood and water samples were collected in collection tubes specially designed for this purpose. The fixed slides of infected Red Blood Cell (RBC) were purchased from the market and was taken as positive control. (a)The sample was not only collected from human beings but also from the diseased animals as well. That the blood of each sample was spread on a glass slide, fixed and stained with Giemsia and was observed under microscope. (b)Beside that the blood samples from infected people were inoculated (added) in RPMI-1640 medium (name of medium used for the growth of Plasmodium that also contain RBC) present in bottle and were incubated to grow causative agent of the disease under laboratory conditions. The sample from these bottles were observed under microscope for presence of Plasmodium after 72 hours of incubation. Furthermore, the surface water from stagnant regions of reservoir was collected in a container and was assayed for presence of larvae of mosquitoes with help of magnifying glass. Laboratory Safety Procedure All the containers having biological material was heated at 1210 C at 15 psi for 15 minutes to kill every type of living cells before discarding them. The chemical agents were discarded as described in their respective safety manuals Result Microscopy results show that the Red Blood Cell of diseased people were found to be infected with Plasmodium. The causative agent of the disease was successfully found to grow in the medium that supports the growth of Plasmodium (Figure 3) and that was confirmed by microscopy e.g Plasmodium were found in the sample from medium under microscope and slides observed were found similar as shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2 Plasmodium Figure 7 The blood sample after mixing with other reagent (as shown with white arrow indicating towards a tube) is then inoculated into the bottle ( as shown in picture) ( source Nature Protocols courtesy to Nature Publishing Group) The surface water samples that was taken from the stagnant water collected near water reservoir were found of have mosquitoes larvae in large number as is shown in Figure 4. Conclusion The results that includes, presence of large number of mosquitoes larvae near the site of outbreak, Plasmodium was found in the infected blood of diseased people, that was successfully grown in the medium and conditions specific confirm that the outbreak is of malaria that was caused by Plasmodium. Skill development to solve a Biological Problem Report A report comprising the incidences of malaria during the years 2002, 2003 and 2004, in three different cities was published in a newspaper. The patient were treated by using drug A and attempt to kill mosquitoes were made by spraying B into environment and adding in water collection. Out of these report related to three cities is given below. In Karachi 530 malarial cases were reported in year of 2002, 534760 in 2003 and 12345668 in 2004 respectively. The mortality reported in these years were 98 in 2002, 120001 in 2003 and 5408889 in 2004.The rain fall recorded in Karachi for year 2002 is 50mm, 2003 is 100 mm and 10,000 mm in 2004.The drug resistance was found in 12 cases in 2002, 60009 cases in 2003 and 9900099 cases in 2004. In 2002, 134 malarial cases were reported in Faisalabad where as in 2003 and 2004 the reported numbers were 1237 and 1379 respectively. The mortality reported in years 2002, 2003 and 2004 were 10, 99, 115 respectively. The annual rainfall reported in these years were 12 mm in 2002, 58 mm in 2003 and 89 mm in 2004.The antimalarial drug resistance was found to be in 2 cases in 2002 , 79 cases in 2003 and 91 cases in 2004. In a similar study that was conducted in Gilgit during these three years, it was found that malaria affected 325 people in 2002, 135 people in 2003 and 350 people in 2004.There were 10 people reported to be died of malarial disease in 2002, 8 people in 2003 and 17 people in 2004. The annual rainfall reported in these years were 130, 120, 105 mm in 2002, 2003 and 2004 respectively. The resistance against anti malarial drug found in 2002, 2003 and 2004 were 9, 4, 9 respectively. Source ( It is an imaginary situation given with data to help student develop research skills) Research Methodology Step 1 Identification of problem from published literature After reading the above mentioned findings, management of heavy occurrence of malarial disease has been identified as a problem. Step 2 literature search for generating the hypothesis taking malaria as a test case Malaria is a very common infectious disease that is commonly associated with poverty. It is caused by protozoan parasites Plasmodium species that is transferred to human being blood circulation system by the vector Anopheles mosquito’s bite(1). Literature show that malarial outbreaks can be related with rainfall in that area (2). Malaria is more common in urban area than in cities. However in Africa it is present in both rural and urban areas (3,4)No literature is available about the relation of malarial incidence with location of the place with height above sea level. The occurrence of malarial outbreak can be related with presence of stagnant water that can support the mosquito survival in populations. Heavy use of anti-malarial drugs and mosquito cidal sprays is reported to produce resistance in the protozoa against commonly used drugs (5). 1) Cox F (2002). History of Human parasitology. Clin Microbiol Rev 15 (4): 595-612. 2) Grover-Kopec E, Kawano M, Klaver R, Blumenthal B, Ceccato P, Connor S. 2005 An online operational rainfall-monitoring resource for epidemic malaria early warning systems in Africa. Malar J 4(1): 6. 3) Van Benthem B, Vanwambeke S, Khantikul N, Burghoorn-Maas C, Panart K, Oskam L, Lambin E, Somboon P 2005.Spatial patterns of and risk factors for seropositivity for dengue infection Am J Trop Med Hyg 72 (2): 201-8. 4) Keiser J, Utzinger J, Caldas de Castro M, Smith T, Tanner M, Singer B 2004. Urbanization in sub-saharan Africa and implication for malaria control. Am J Trop Med Hyg 71 (2 Suppl): 118-27. 5)Rieckmann, K.H.2006 The chequered history of malaria control: are new and better tools the ultimate answer? Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 100(8) 647-662 6) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria (The Scientific literature is presented with citation of references as is shown in above paragraph) Step 3 Deduction of hypothesis with help of published literature After reading the reported literature as mentioned above following hypothesis can be deduced. Incidence of malaria is dependent on amount of rainfall probably through collection of stagnant water Step 4 Experimental design The data for the parameters analyzed was collected by using standard methods e.g. microscopy of infected blood samples at different hospitals and was published in a newspaper as a scientific report. Step 5 Presentation of Raw data The above mentioned data is presented below in tabular form. Karachi Year Malarial cases reported Mortality Rainfall (mm) No of resistant cases to anti-malarial drug A 2002 530 98 50 12 2003 534760 120001 100 60009 2004 12345668 5408889 10000 9900099 Average/year 4293652.667 1842996 3383.33 3320040 Faisalabad Year Malarial cases reported Mort

Modern World Affairs

In Modern world affairs, diplomacy is less and less important in shaping relations between political actors. Do you agree? If so, why? If not, why not? The process of globalisation has affected the role of traditional diplomacy, which was originally confined to predominately deal with issues of war and peace between two political bodies. Traditional diplomacy is as a result, in a state of anachronism and is deemed losing its influential power in post-modern international relations (Leguey-Feilleux 2009, pp. -2). Despite this, traditional diplomacy is still relevant in that it is capable of broadening and deepening the content and conduct of its role in current international affairs and in shaping the relations between different political actors. The art of diplomacy has undergone an evolution in scope and dimension in order to be used as a versatile tool to adjust to the current global environment, despite being a useful tool even in its traditional capacity (Leguey-Feilleux 2009 p. 14).Therefore, although the narrow classical mode of diplomacy is being challenged, diplomacy in the modern world is as important as ever, if not more so, and has developed the ability to adapt to today’s turbulent modern world. This paper firstly defines diplomacy with a brief historical evolution of the art and investigates how globalisation impacts on diplomatic roles. It then discusses and analyse the importance of diplomacy in the modern sphere. DEFINITION & REVOLUTION OF DIPLOMACY (BILATERALISM-MULTILATERALISM-POLYATERALISM)The conventional definition of diplomacy, that is, â€Å"the peaceful way of relations between political entities with their accredited representatives such as envoys and ambassadors by communication, interaction and negotiation† (Siracusa 2010, p. 2), has been around for many centuries and has been evolving over time. Traditional diplomacy was primarily considered to be â€Å"the art of managing bilateral relations between states† (Sir acusa 2010, p. 6) and was viewed as a very rigid institution.Although diplomacy is still holding to the traditional practical grounds in the current international political realm, diplomacy is no longer limited to war and peace as in previous centuries and needs to been extended to deal with many issues which would be difficult to do under traditional diplomatic methodology. The traditional institution was characterised as bilateral diplomacy, and greatly focused on making treaties between two sovereign-states with its diplomatic norms typically embodied by professional diplomats (Sirasa 2010, p. ). This diplomatic method was particularly recognised during the periods of the Italian city-states in the fifteenth century when Italy appointed the first permanent ambassadors (Saner & Yiu 2003, p. 9). A sovereign state would traditionally send an envoy to other political entities that had equal powers to conclude treaties and prevent wars (Rana 2007 p. 23). Then came the modern era of di plomacy, which is said to have started with the Peace of Westphalia, the Westphalia peace negotiations, at the end of the Thirty Years War in 1648.This event saw diplomacy officially recognised as a profession (Siracusa 2010, p. 2). The major turning point in diplomacy however, was between 1914 and 1918, when many nation states began to proclaim that ineffective traditional sovereignty such as the bilateral and secret system of diplomacy was a major cause of the First World War (Siddiqui & Alam 2010, p. 28).Woodrow Wilson, as a result of these claims, insisted that diplomacy should be more open and democratic in order to involve multiple states, which led to the emergence of a new style of diplomacy embedded in an open and multilateral system under the League of the Nations (Siddiqui & Alam 2010, pp. 28-29). These changes allowed new international institutions to emerge (Pigman 2010, p. 23). Diplomacy since then has further evolved as a result of globalisation and can no longer be c onsidered only in terms of relations between states (Wiseman 2004, pp. 40-41).The definition of diplomacy itself has been expanded in recent years as a result of the complexity of the current international environment, which has required that the role of diplomacy be broadened in order to be more suitable to modern governments and other political bodies (Black 2010, p. 254). Indeed, in order to survive modern diplomacy has had to embrace multilateral and polylateral relationships by engaging more non-traditional diplomatic entities such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs), Intergovernmental organisations (IGOs), local and city governments, and transnational corporations (Wiseman 2004, p. 6). Diplomacy has the potential to play an important and integral part of relations between different political actors in this new role, and will in doing so regain some of the importance it held in previous eras. Wiseman (2004) insists that diplomacy has indeed adapted to a global world and mo ved beyond multilateralism to â€Å"Polylateralism†, which further layer of diplomatic interaction and relations between states and other entities (p. 41).Supranational, subnational and transnational actors such as European Union, Quebec, and Microsoft are indeed currently engaging in complicated activities of diplomacy (Pigman 2010, pp. 18-19). The incident on September 11th in 2001, for example, occurred in the United States (state) in New York by non-state actor, Al-Qaeda and there were various alliances and networks around the world involved to solve the resulting conflict (Saner & Yiu 2003, p. 10).The twenty-first century has undergone serious globalisation, meaning that diplomacy in its traditional but narrow capacity can no longer always solve the complex multiple boundary issues that frequently present themselves and therefore must expand its institutional capabilities in order to deal with non-state actors. In many senses diplomacy has already achieved such an evolut ion in practice however it still holds to its traditional guidelines as a baseline and in a theoretical capacity.The scope of the practice of modern diplomacy has certainly increased in recent times and is now without a doubt capable of dealing with complex issues. It has been developed in such a way that it will be easily adaptable to a changing world and can therefore be a tremendously relevant and potentially essential tool in modern world affairs. GLOBALISATION IMPACTS Diplomacy in the twenty first century has become more than the diplomacy of states and government, although the sovereign state remains as a key actor (Siracusa 2010, p. 06). Globalisation is constantly changing the nature and conduct of diplomacy and as a result it is becoming more rapidly deepened and broadened in current world affairs. Diplomacy today is used to deal with concerns about much broader subjects such as terrorism, human rights, economy, law and climate change, which were not issues in previous cent uries and therefore as a result new actors and advanced information technology (IT) have been introduced into the role of diplomacy (Siddiqui & Alam 2010, p. 182).One such example is the speed of the conduct of diplomacy which as a result of IT and electronic communications has increased dramatically and brought international organisations, governments and civil societies much closer together (Murray 2011, p. 726). This, as a result, has diversified the nature of diplomacy to be less state-centric and to have a system that is less state-hierarchical (Chatterjee 2007, p. 111). The wider availability of knowledge available through the internet, has helped one of diplomacy’s key activities, that of gathering information for decision-making purposes.Information is not only available to diplomats but also to non-state entities and to the general public and as a result, diplomacy has become less state-centric. Particular types of information however, cannot be obtained without pers onal contact by the diplomat, nor can computers accurately analyse, interpret and report this information. The advancement in IT has therefore by no means replaced the need for this diplomatic activity (Siddiqui & Alam 2010, p. 189).Ambassadors today do not simply represent a particular entity, although that is a main part of their role; their primary function is to tactically apply their technical skills in order to promote their home countries image and to nurture good relationships with their host countries (Kerr & Wiseman 2013, p. 29). Satow (1979) also asserts that human nature and national character have not altered to any remarkable extent meaning that diplomacy will always be a required part of affairs and diplomats’ roles cannot be replaced by IT (Gore-Booth 1979, p. 442).The new age of IT also improves the negotiation role of diplomacy. It boosts larger participation in policy discussion by members from different departments within a state and also with IGOs as disc ussion can take place without the necessity of being in the same physical location (Hamilton & Langhorne 2011, p. 233). This form of discussion was successfully applied in the negotiations with Bosnia and led to the Dayton agreement (Siddiqui & Alam 2010, p. 187). Modern technology can make diplomacy conduit a much faster process, which means that issues can be resolved quickly.In matters of international safety and other significant and urgent matters, IT has become an essential tool for negotiation in modern international diplomacy (Chatterjee 2007, pp. 114-115). Another example of the effects of globalisation to diplomacy is the role played by intergovernmental organisations such as the World Trade Organisation (WTO) and transnational corporations. These entities play a large role in the complex international economic and political system of the modern world and affect diplomatic relations in a unique way (Saner & Yiu 2003, p. ). Diplomats usually promote their home interests to other countries in relation to commerce and trade and invite private investors but state and private sector relations more often involve complex negotiations that handle the terms of private foreign investment and trade (Siddiqui & Alam 2010, p. 184). Exxon Mobile for instance put efforts to obstruct the United States from signing the Kyoto Protocol agreement in order to avoid its additional liabilities and taxes.Similarly, Microsoft tried to protect its software by influencing the Philippines government to pass a new intellectual property law with the United States government (Rugman 2008, pp. 98-99). These examples show how state entities and private corporation relations affect world and domestic foreign policy. Kerr and Wiseman (2013) assert however, that the involvement of corporations is confined to making international business deals, while nation-state governments ultimately make the decisions regarding the rules of trade (p. 9). The role of the state actor is still very ess ential to assess the political consequences but they may need to enlarge their capabilities in terms of diplomacy in order to deal with the non-state actors and to learn to manage the multiple boundaries of today’s complex economic and political realities (Sancer &Yiu 2003, p. 2). A final example of the effects of globalisation to diplomacy is illustrated through the issue of the rise of terrorism and localised wars.Global governance institutions (intergovernmental organisations) such as the United Nations (UN), the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) have developed the appearance of holding importance international status (Siddiqui & Alam 2010, p. 184), but in reality may not be as productive as dealing with such issues as publicly assumed. The UN’s ability as an effective mediator is unfortunately somewhat exaggerated, mainly due to a lack of military or significant cash flow of its own. It can hardly be a successful med iator without adequate resources.The Somalia intervention from 1992 to 1995, for instance, was a UN and US arranged Unified Task Force (UNITAF) that resulted in disastrous consequences because of a lack of humanitarian aid and other resources that were originally promised (Ketcher 2010, p. 20). Berridge (2010) asserts that intergovernmental organisations are â€Å"free-booting amateurs with limited usefulness† (p. 254). State actors such as official diplomats therefore should be in a key and immensely important position to monitor and regulate global governance institutions in order to ensure the maintenance of appropriate operation (Chatterjee 2007).CONCLUSION Diplomacy as a professional institution is constantly evolving its definition and its practices while still remaining loyal to the key principles that were forged at the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations in 1961. Globalisation and the technological revolution have speedily changed the nature of diplomacy in ter ms of; technology-based international relations, complex internationalisation problem solving, changing the international system of trade and commerce and the holding a crucial involvement in IGOs and transnational corporations.Diplomacy today is as a result becoming more rapidly depended and broadened in the world affair. Furthermore, it also has made it possible for non-state actors to establish supra-territorial relationships so that while state actors still hold a crucial status, they are able to actively cooperate with non-state actors to secure position and expand knowledge (Saner & Yiu 2003, p. 29).Despite contrary opinions diplomacy has clearly and successfully adapted to the modern world and as a result plays a very significant role in the relation between different political parties, albeit a slightly different and expanded role that is traditionally filled. In view of this it is likely that diplomacy will continue to be a very effective tool, capable of shaping and mouldi ng modern world affairs between the different political partners and in doing so will continue to control the forefront of international relations in the future.

Gap Within the Organization: a Case Study in Administrative Building

Communication Gap within the Organization: A case study in administrative building of SUST, Sylhet By Sato Barua Masters Student Department of Public Administration SUST, Sylhet Introduction Organizational communication as a discipline grew tremendously over the 20th century, but accompanying that growth was a struggle to establish a clear identity of the field. Today scholars still continue to define and redefine the focus, boundaries and future of the field (Thompkin & Wanka-Thibault, 2001).Why it is that organizational communication is such an interesting concept for researchers to study? Apparently, a great deal of the answer to this question can be found in the importance communication has been re-vealed having for the success of organizations. Open communication has for example been found to be positively correlated with employees’ satisfaction with the organization (Koike, Gudykunst, William, Lea & Ting-Toomey, 1989). Communication is the glue that holds a society toget her. The ability to communicate enables people to form and maintain personal relationships.And the quality of such relationships depends on the caliber of communication between the parties. Communication is the process of sharing ideas, information, and messages with others in a particular time and place. Communication includes writing and talking, as well as nonverbal communication (such as facial expressions, body language, or gestures), visual communication (the use of images or pictures, such as painting, photography, video or film) and electronic communication (telephone calls, electronic mail, cable television, or satellite broadcasts).Communication is a vital part of personal life and is also important in business, education, and any other situations where people encounter each other (Encarta, 1998). A study was completed within the organization to determine if there was an internal communication gap that existed between the supervisors and representatives. When there 1 is an internal communication gap within an organization there is usually a breakdown in the way information is been sent from the sender to the receiver. This is precedent in organizations that have a top down hierarchy.In this type of hierarchy it can be difficult for bottom level employees to obtain information regarding changes within the organization. Significance of the study Communication is described as one of the crucial fouls of management. It helps in handling the major managerial tasks of planning direction coordination motivating and controlling. We live in a world filled with other people. We live together, work together, and play together. In our personal lives, we need each other for security, comfort, friendship, and love.In our working environment, we need each other in order to achieve our goals and objectives. None of these goals can be achieved without communication. Communication is the basic thread that ties us together. Through communication we make known our needs , our wants, our ideas, and our feelings. The better we are at communication, the more effective we are at achieving our hopes and dreams (Alessandra, Hunsaker, 1993). Based upon conversations among the representatives, this study is important because there appears to be a lack of communication within the organization.Some of the representatives feel as though the supervisors have daily meetings, but no information is shared regarding the company changes and/or procedures. When there is an internal communication gap it becomes difficult for anyone to effectively achieve goals. Purpose of the study The purpose of this study is to determine whether or not there's an internal communication gap that exist between the representatives and the supervisors. The three objectives of this study were to: 2 1. Discover whether or not there is an internal communication gap between supervisors and representatives within the organization. . Determine the subject's perception of their immediate supe rvisor’s level of communication. 3. Identify the ways in which employees usually receive most of their information. Definition of terms Sender Someone or something that sends or transmits something. To establish yourself as an effective communicator, you must first establish credibility. You must also know your audience (individuals or groups to which you are delivering your message). Failure to understand who you are communicating to will result in delivering messages that are misunderstood (Fowler, 2005).Message A communication in speech, writing, or signals. Written, oral and nonverbal communications are effected by the sender's tone, method of organization, validity of the argument, what is communicated and what is left out, as well as your individual style of communicating. Messages also have intellectual and emotional components, with intellect allowing us the ability to reason and emotion allowing us to present motivational appeals, ultimately changing minds and action s (Fowler, 2005). Channel A course or a means of communication or expression.Messages are conveyed through channels, with verbal including face-to-face meetings, telephone and videoconferencing; and written including letters, emails, memos and reports (Fowler, 2005). 3 Receiver These messages are delivered to an audience. No doubt, you have in mind the actions or reactions you hope our message prompts from this audience. Keep in mind, your audience also enters into the communication process with ideas and feelings that will undoubtly influence their understanding. Your audience will provide you with feedback, verbal and nonverbal reactions to your communicated message.Pay close attention to this feedback as it is crucial to ensuring the audience understood your message (Fowler, 2005). Context The words or phrases or passages that come before and after a particular word or passage in a speech or piece of writing and help to explain it's full meaning (Encarta, 2005). Feedback Comments in the form of opinions about the reactions to something intended to provide useful information for future decisions and development (Fowler, 2005). A literature review was completed to determine the importance of internal communication within the work environment. Review of literatureIn every society, humans have developed spoken and written language as a means of sharing messages and meanings. The most common form of daily communication is interpersonal- that is, face-to-face, at the same time and in the same place (Encarta, 2005). Communication barriers can pop-up at every stage of the communication process (which consists of sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback and context) and have the potential to create misunderstanding and confusion. To be an effective communicator and to get your point across without misunderstanding and confusion, your goal should be to 4 essen the frequency of these barriers at each stage of this process with clear, concise, accurate, well planne d communications (Fowler & Manktelow, 2005). Communication, the heart of business, is the most important of all entrepreneurial skills. The destiny of the business depends on the quality of your relationships. Your ability to transmit information helps both clients and employees feel they can communicate with and ultimately trust you (Black Enterprise, Charles, 1998, pg 116). Internal communication is more important today than in previous years partly because the business and market conditions are more complex.There is a lot of information in the marketplace and it's crucial that employees understand it. The development of a strategic internal communication strategy and its implementation can provide a number of benefits to organizations, such as keeping employees motivated and engaged, and sharing clear, consistent messages with employees in a timely manner. Personal relationship is what organizations are all about -or should be. An organization, whatever its size, mission, or moti ve is merely a collection of people assembled to pursue a common objective.An organization functions through its people, who in turn function through communication (Brennan, 1974). Employees have their own sources, their own information system, separate from the management channels. These usually carry the news ahead of communications from management. Not that the employee network is flawless. That system transmits information indiscriminately- Fragments, Rumors, Gossip. It may not always operate in the best interests of the organization, but it does provide a check-point when management fantasies are disguised as information.Furthermore, it enables employees to participate in the communication process, and it fills their need for information which at least seems to come from a credible source: another employee (Brennan, 1974). Employees, like all people, require outlets for their thoughts and feelings. And they find them. So don't arbitrarily assume that the relative absence of emp loyee complaints is a positive sign. Employees may be expressing themselves through other channels: meetings with fellow employees, union representatives, government agents; or through passiveaggressive behavior such as work slowdowns, carelessness, tardiness, absenteeism, and apathy.These can be symptoms that employees feel other means of participation are unavailable to them (Brennan, 1974). 5 The skill of listening becomes extremely important when we talk about â€Å"upward communication. † There are many avenues through which management can send messages downward through a business organization, but there are few avenues for movement of information in the upward direction (Nichols & Stevens, 1999). Many popular theories on workplace communication focus on the differences between men and women, suggesting that the sexual divide causes communication to break down. Women are seen as being more empathetic and oblique than men.Other variables that cause people to mix their mes sages include differences in age, culture, and socioeconomic background. Some tips to help managers bridge any communication gap were (Fortune 1994): 1. Listen actively for the subtext of people's words. 2. Persuade rather than command. 3. Target your words to your audience. 4. React to content, not to people's manner of expressing themselves. 5. Let people know that criticism is welcome. 6. Make your intentions clear before acting. 7. Assume that people take responsibility for what they say. By successfully getting your message across, you convey your thoughts and ideas effectively.When not successful, the thoughts and ideas that you convey do not necessarily reflect your own, causing a communications breakdown and creating roadblocks that stand in the way of your goals-both personally and professionally (Fowler & Mankelow, 2005). In the workplace, supervisors and their employees have opportunities to develop nonthreatening, mutually rewarding relationships. These can be quite cond ucive to individual and corporate health. They are akin to what in our personal life we call meaningful relationships. Supervisors who attain such relationships with employees are said to practice â€Å"positive human relations. True. But it's done through communication. (Brennan, 1974). 6 Methodology of procedures Methodology can properly refer to the theoretical analysis of the methods appropriate to a field of study or to the body of methods and principles particular to a branch of knowledge. Methodology has been increasingly used as a pretentious substitute for method in scientific and technical contexts. â€Å"Methodology† is a system of precise rules and procedures on which research is based and against which claims for knowledge and evaluation. Research and DesignA quantitative research methodology was used for the research to determine if there was a communication gap within the organization. A multiple choice single answered survey was distributed to the lower-level employees. A survey can be a powerful tool to improve communication between different parts of an organization. Surveys are especially useful for establishing upward communication links from lower-level employees to management. Population The survey was distributed to lower-level employees who are within the organization. The participant's involved included males and females with 6 weeks to 20 years of experience within the organization.A total of 20 surveys were completed. The participants were informed per instructions on the survey and through face-to-face conversation that their participation was voluntary and the answers in which they chose would remain confidential, with the exception of the final results from all the participants. Sample The research was conducted within Administrative Buildings of Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, located in Sylhet, Bangladesh. The organization has an 7 estimated 300 staff which are located in three separate buildings. The adm inistration is divided into some units and each unit has one supervisor.The subordinates report to the supervisors. Instrumentation The survey consisted of ten multiple choices single answer questions and one open ended question. The participants were asked single answer questions to discover whether or not there was an internal communication gap between supervisors and the subordinates within the organization, to determine the subject's perception of their immediate supervisors level of communication and to identify the ways in which employees usually receive most of their information. The survey was distributed to the employees by the researcher via face-to-face contact.The researcher chose face- to-face contact because it gave the participants the opportunity to ask questions and to have a visual picture of whom and where to return the surveys. Data collecting and recording A Microsoft program, Excel was used to determine the percentage rate of each answer given by the participan ts. Limitations of the study The limitations of this study were that the researcher could not distribute the surveys to forty-three employees. Some employees were not available to complete the survey due to absenteeism (vacation, personal time, sick, etc). The employees are so much busy so they cannot provide me to give information.Time is not sufficient to gain practical knowledge and prepare a report. I have no proper experience to do this kind of report. So, inexperience creates obstacle to follow the systematic and logical research methodology. 8 Analysis Findings The present study was designed to determine whether or not there were an internal communication gap that existed between the subordinates and the supervisors. The three objectives of this study were to: 4. Discover whether or not there is an internal communication gap between supervisors and representatives within the organization. . Determine the subject's perception of their immediate supervisor’s level of com munication. 6. Identify the ways in which employees usually receive most of their information. The representatives responded to questions regarding the communication within their organization. To the contrary, the result suggests that 5% of the representatives were neutral regarding the overall satisfaction of communication within this organization, 80% were very satisfied, 15% were satisfied and no one indicated that they were dissatisfied.Although majority of the representatives were very satisfied so 60% thought the organization kept them fully informed and no one indicated that the organization gave them a limited amount of information, 35% thought that they were fairly well informed, 5% answer was unclear. When asked how would you rate your supervisor's communication skills, 80% indicated excellent and 20% marked that their supervisor communicated very good. Also, 35% indicated that whenever there was change within the organization their supervisors inform them most of the time . A 60% response was given to the supervisors informing them all the time.Like many organizations, the majority (90%) of the representatives indicated that they received most of their information through their supervisor. The overall result of the survey indicates that there does not appear to be a lack of communication between the subordinates and the superiors. 9 Results Table 1: Which best describes your impression of communications within this organization? Item Response Frequency % Keeps us fully informed 14 70 Keeps us fairly well informed 3 15 Keeps us adequately informed 2 10 Gives us only a limited amount of Information 0 0 Doesn't tell us much at all about what is going on 0 Answer was unclear 1 5 N=20 0% Figure 1: impression of communications within this organization. 10 5% Answer were unclear 0% Doesn't tell us what is going on 10% Adequately informed Fairly well informed 15% Limited amount of information 70% Fully informed 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Table 2: How do you feel about the information you receive? Item Response Frequency % I can almost always believe it 14 70 I can usually believe it 3 15 I can believe it about half the time 2 10 I usually can't believe it 1 5 Frequency % Strongly Agree 16 80 Agree 3 15 Neutral 1 5 Strongly Disagree 0 0 N=20Table 3: I have the information I need to do my job. Item Response N=20 11 Table 4: How would you rate your supervisor's communication skills? Item Response Frequency % Excellent 16 80 Very good 4 20 Good 0 0 Fair 0 0 Poor 0 0 Unclear answer 0 0 N=20 20% Excellent Very Good 80% Figure 2: Supervisor's communication skills. 12 Table 5: Overall, how satisfied are you with the communications within this organization? Item Response Frequency % Very satisfied 16 80 Satisfied 3 15 Neutral 1 5 Very dissatisfied 0 0 Unable to identify answer 0 0 N=20 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 80% 15% 5% Very Satisfied Satisfied NeutralFigure 3: Overall satisfaction of communications within the organizatio n. 13 Table 6: From which of the following sources do you usually receive most of your information? Item Response Frequency % Grapevine 0 0 Bulletin Board 0 0 My supervisor 18 90 Group meetings 0 0 Organizational Programs 0 0 Organizational emails 0 0 Multiple answers 2 10 N=20 Table 7: I feel confident that management considers my ideas and/or concerns. Item Response Frequency % All the time 8 40 Some of the time 12 60 Undecided 0 0 Almost never 0 0 Never 0 0 N=20 14 Table 8: Whenever there is a change within the organization, my supervisor Item Response Frequency Always inform me 12 60 Inform me most of the time 7 35 Almost never informs me 0 0 Never informs me 0 0 Unable to identify answer 1 5 N=20 Table 9: The information that I receive from my supervisor is consistent with the information received from other supervisors. Item Response Frequency % Strongly Agree 15 75 Agree 5 25 Neutral 0 0 Disagree 0 0 Strongly Disagree 0 0 N=20 15 What topics do you feel are important for you to know more about and would like the organization to inform you during future communications? Answer: ? Policy and/or procedural changes ? Future and/or general changes that are coming and how to prepare for it ?Correct procedures for completing work correctly ? Adequate training for job changes ? Training and/or how to use new programs ? Overtime and/or for special projects ? All information that can help improve goals and job skills ? New updates within the system ? Legitimate reasons why things cannot be updated or corrected ? More feedback on the quality and quantity of work completed. ? Information regarding promotions ? Information regarding other departments. 16 Conclusions Communication is very important in every aspect of our lives. In order for any relationship to work properly we have to learn to communicate effectively with each other.The fact still remains that in order for any business whether entrepreneur, partnerships or corporate offices to succeed we have to commu nicate with someone to voice our ideas and/or concerns. The literature review addressed the importance of internal communication. It provided the researcher with background information on the different ways and the different styles of communication. Needless to say, face-to-face communication seemed to remain the number one style of communicating within organizations. Based upon the answers given on the survey, most people were thought that the communication was satisfactory within the organization.Majority of the participants also felt that their supervisor communication skills were excellent. 17 Recommendations The researcher would recommend for future research that the survey exclude any neutral options. Although by eliminating this option it forces the participants to answer one way or the other. The researcher believes that you will get more precise answers. The supervisors can also following communication techniques can be used to increase the level of internal communication i n the organization and therefore the level of the organizational efficiency (Fishman, 2000). 1. Share information with employees whenever possible.One of the most sensitive areas in management involves how much company information should be shared with employees. Many feel that information should be given on a need-to-know basis. 2. Find out if those listening to you hear what you say and interpret it correctly. One way of doing this is to ask questions that will show the understanding level of those with whom you are speaking. 18 References 1. Alessandra, T & Hunsaker, P. (1993). Communication at Work. Fireside, Simon & Schuster, New York, NY. 2. Brennan, J. (1 974). The Conscious Communicator; making communication work in the workplace. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Reading, MA. . MSN Encarta Premium (2005). Retrieved May 2005 from http:// www. msn. com. , accessed on 15. 12. 2011. 4. Retrieved from, http://www. communicationintheworkplace. net/, accessed on 15. 12. 2011. 5. Retri eved from, http://www. buzzle. com/articles/importance-of-communication-inthe-workplace. html, accessed on 18. 12. 2011. 6. Retrieved from, http://www4. ncsu. edu/~crmiller/Publications/ATTW03. pdf, accessed on 18. 12. 2011. 7. Retrieved from, http://www2. uwstout. edu/content/lib/thesis/2005/2005mallett hamerb. pdf, accessed on 20. 12. 2011. 8. Retrieved from,http://www. lisc. org/docs/resources/experts/2007/eo_2007_03_07. df, accessed on 22. 12. 2011. 9. Retrieved from, http://www. google. com/#sclient=psyab&hl=en&source=hp&q=communication+in+t he+workplace+ppt&oq=communicaton+in+the+workplace+&aq=3&aqi=g10&aql=& gs_sm=c&gs_upl=7599l8963l0l11145l8l6l0l0l0l5l766l3816l55. 1l6l0&bav=on. 2,or. r_ gc. r_pw. ,cf. osb&fp=55dcc7523cfd78c6&biw=1024&bih=577, accessed on 23. 12. 2011. 10. Retrieved from, http://www. managementskillsadvisor. com/effective-communicationin-the-workplace. html, accessed on 23. 12. 2011. 19 Appendix Survey Questions Please fill in the answer that best fit your ex perience when dealing with communication within this organization. . Which best describes your impression of communications within this organization? ? Keeps us fully informed ? Keeps us fairly well informed ? Keeps us adequately informed ? Gives us only a limited amount of Information ? Doesn't tell us much at all about what is going on ? Answer was unclear 2. How do you feel about the information you receive? ? I can almost always believe it. ? I can usually believe it. ? I can believe it about half the time. ? I usually can't believe it. 3. I have the information I need to do my job. ? Strongly Agree ? Agree ? Neutral ? Strongly Disagree 20 4.How would you rate your supervisor's communication skills? ? Excellent ? Very good ? Good ? Fair ? Poor ? Unclear answer 5. Overall, how satisfied are you with the communications within this organization? ? Very satisfied ? Satisfied ? Neutral ? Very dissatisfied ? Unable to identify answer 6. From which of the following sources do you usual ly receive most of your information? ? Grapevine ? Bulletin Board ? Company Newsletter (Intranet) ? My supervisor ? Unit leader ? Group meetings ? Company Programs ? Company emails ? Multiple answers 21 7. I feel confident that management considers my ideas and/or concerns. All the time ? Some of the time ? Undecided ? Almost never ? Never 8. Whenever there is a change within the organization, my supervisor ? Always inform me ? Inform me most of the time ? Almost never informs me ? Never informs me ? Unable to identify answer 9. The information that I receive from my supervisor is consistent with the information received from other supervisors. ? Strongly Agree ? Agree ? Neutral ? Disagree ? Strongly Disagree 10. What topics do you feel are important for you to know more about and would like the organization to inform you during future communications? 22

Children Are A Product Of The People And Things They Are

Children are a product of the people and things they are surrounded by. As they age, they will encounter trials and advancements that will either make or break them. Researchers have been working for over 100 years to develop facts and theories that explain and analyze childhood development. This paper will analyze various aspects of childhood development, such as associative play, attention ability, aggression, and conformity with the help of observations from interactions during preschool free play analyzed by the social cognition theory. Associative Play Associative play is a concept under the umbrella of Mildred Parten’s system of children’s social play, called â€Å"Stages† of Play. This stage of play occurs when peers play alongside†¦show more content†¦The peers would offer their toys to each other, bounce it on one of their shoulders, and even glide them along the blocks, but they never joined into one specific activity. These details of their interactions make this example even more fitting to represent the Associative stage of play because of their level of social interaction outside of the playing with the wooden blocks. As the time past, they were remained content with doing their own thing, keeping one another company, and dancing to the same beat. Attention Ability Major strides in child’s ability to pay attention occurs during their preschool years (Santrock, 2013, p. 267). Being able to focus on one thing can be extremely difficult for toddlers because of all the things in their world that are able to catch their attention, but luckily, as they grow and mature they are able to advance in their attention skills. An aspect of attention that is improved during these years, is the ability to focus on one task or object for an extended period of time, a concept known as, sustained attention (Santrock, 2013, p. 268). 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